Study Finds One in Seven England Takeaways Are Dark Kitchens

Published: 31 January 2026. The English Chronicle Desk. The English Chronicle Online

A growing share of England’s online food economy is operating out of sight, according to new academic research examining delivery platforms. A university-led study has found that one in seven food businesses listed on major delivery apps now operate as so-called dark kitchens. The findings highlight the rapid expansion of a hidden sector that many consumers use without realising it.

The research shows that approximately fifteen percent of all online food retailers in England fall into this category. These businesses, also described as cloud, ghost, or virtual kitchens, prepare food exclusively for delivery. They have no physical storefront and cannot be visited by customers. Instead, they rely entirely on digital platforms to reach consumers.

Dark kitchens have grown quickly alongside the expansion of food delivery apps such as Deliveroo, Just Eat, and Uber Eats. Their rise has reshaped how meals are prepared, sold, and consumed across the country. Yet despite their increasing presence, these businesses have remained poorly understood and loosely defined until now.

Researchers say the lack of a shared definition has made regulation difficult. Without clear classification, dark kitchens have often fallen between existing planning, food safety, and public health frameworks. This has created challenges for regulators, local councils, environmental health officers, and consumers seeking transparency.

Dr Lucie Nield, a co-lead investigator from the University of Sheffield, said the findings underline an urgent need for clarity. She argued that people ordering food online deserve to know where their meals are prepared and under what conditions. She also stressed that delivery-only businesses must meet appropriate regulatory standards.

Nield warned that without stronger oversight, dark kitchens could present risks to public health. She pointed to their potential role in encouraging greater reliance on takeaway food, particularly options high in fat, salt, and sugar. Increased availability, she said, often leads to increased consumption, with long-term health consequences.

The study was commissioned by the National Institute for Health and Care Research and brought together researchers from several universities. Their goal was to establish the first industry-wide framework for defining and identifying dark kitchens. This work aimed to support clearer communication and more effective regulation across the sector.

To achieve this, the research team worked closely with a wide range of stakeholders. These included academics, public health specialists, local authority officials, national regulators, industry workers, and consumers. This collaborative approach was intended to ensure the definition reflected how these businesses operate in practice.

The final agreed definition describes dark kitchens as technology-enabled commercial kitchens operating primarily for delivery. They fulfil remote, on-demand online food orders intended for immediate consumption. Researchers believe this wording captures both the operational model and the digital nature of the sector.

Using this definition, the team then examined how widespread dark kitchens have become on major delivery platforms. They employed data-scraping techniques to analyse listings across services including Deliveroo and Uber Eats. This allowed them to identify patterns that are difficult to detect through traditional inspections.

One key indicator was the clustering of multiple food brands at the same postcode. Researchers found many cases where several seemingly independent restaurants operated from a single location. This pattern strongly suggested the presence of delivery-only hubs rather than traditional eateries.

To validate their findings, the researchers cross-referenced addresses using tools such as Google Maps. In many cases, there was no visible restaurant signage or customer-facing premises at the listed location. This reinforced concerns about how invisible these operations can be to both customers and regulators.

While dark kitchens offer clear commercial advantages, the study highlights significant policy implications. Lower rents, reduced staffing needs, and flexible locations make the model attractive to operators. However, these same features also make the sector harder to monitor using existing regulatory tools.

Traditional takeaways are often subject to local planning controls. Councils can limit their density, particularly near schools, to promote healthier food environments. Dark kitchens, by contrast, do not rely on foot traffic and can operate in industrial units or warehouses, beyond the reach of such policies.

Researchers warned that this could undermine efforts to manage local food environments. Even where councils restrict new takeaways near schools, dark kitchens can still deliver into those areas. This weakens planning strategies designed to reduce childhood exposure to unhealthy food options.

Food safety and consumer transparency were also identified as areas of concern. Because multiple businesses may share the same kitchen space, customers may be unaware of shared preparation environments. This raises questions about allergen management and the risk of cross-contamination.

For people with allergies or dietary restrictions, this lack of visibility can be particularly problematic. Without clear disclosure, consumers may not know that different brands operate from the same kitchen, using shared equipment and storage areas.

The study also examined consumer behaviour and awareness. Survey data from 2023 showed that forty percent of participants purchased takeaway food at least once a week. Most orders were placed through delivery apps, often for convenience or as an occasional treat.

Despite frequent use of delivery services, awareness of dark kitchens was low. Only around a quarter of respondents had heard the term before. Just nine percent believed they had knowingly ordered food from a dark kitchen, suggesting widespread unintentional use.

However, attitudes shifted when participants were presented with a clear definition. More than half said they would consider ordering from a dark kitchen in future. Many respondents emphasised that transparency was key, saying they wanted this information clearly displayed.

Most participants said they did not object to the concept itself. Instead, they wanted to understand where their food was prepared and how it was regulated. Clear labelling and consistent standards were seen as essential for building trust.

The researchers argue that adopting a shared definition is a crucial first step. With clearer terminology, regulators can develop more targeted inspection regimes. Local authorities could also update planning and public health policies to reflect the realities of delivery-only food production.

Dr Nield said clearer definitions would also support national public health strategies. Better data, she argued, would allow policymakers to assess how dark kitchens influence diets, consumption patterns, and health outcomes over time.

Industry stakeholders may also benefit from greater clarity. Legitimate operators could gain from consistent rules that create a level playing field. At present, the absence of clear standards risks disadvantaging businesses that invest in compliance and transparency.

The study’s authors stress that dark kitchens are not inherently problematic. Many operate safely and efficiently, meeting customer demand in a changing market. The challenge lies in ensuring that rapid growth does not outpace regulation and public understanding.

As online food delivery continues to expand, researchers believe the sector will only become more significant. Without action, they warn, gaps in oversight could widen further. With clear definitions and coordinated policy responses, however, dark kitchens could be integrated more effectively into existing systems.

The findings mark an important step towards understanding a hidden part of England’s food economy. By bringing dark kitchens into clearer view, the research aims to support informed choices, fair regulation, and better public health outcomes. How policymakers respond may shape the future of online food delivery across the country.